Home/Lifestyle/Clean Vegetarian
Lifestyle, Clean Vegetarian

Clean Vegetarian: The Whole-Food Lacto-Ovo Lifestyle

A plant-based way of eating that allows pastured eggs and traditionally produced dairy. The clean version is built on properly prepared whole grains and legumes, abundant vegetables, fermented foods and high-quality fats, distinct from cheese-and-pasta vegetarianism.

🌾 Soaked & Sprouted Grains 🫘 Properly Prepared Legumes 🥚 Pastured Eggs & Pasteurized Dairy 🥬 Vegetables at Every Meal 🥒 Fermented Foods Daily

Last updated:

By the Numbers, United States

How Many Americans Follow This Lifestyle?

~4%
of US adults identify as vegetarian, on survey data1
~1%
of Americans aged 18 to 80 said they had followed a vegetarian diet in the past year (survey data)2

Sources: Gallup, 2023; IFIC, 2023. Surveys disagree: more people call themselves vegetarian than say they actually followed a vegetarian diet in the past year, so figures are approximate.

Definition

What Is Clean Vegetarian Eating?

Vegetarian eating omits meat, poultry and fish but allows plant foods plus dairy and/or eggs. "Clean" means traditional preparation methods (soaking, sprouting, fermenting), pasture-raised or grass-fed animal-derived foods and as little ultra-processed vegetarian food as possible.

The vegetarian tradition has ancient roots in Hinduism and Buddhism3, and in Jainism. The modern Western revival from the 1970s onward (Diet for a Small Planet, the natural-foods movement) added an environmental and animal-welfare layer.

This guide follows the lacto-ovo vegetarian pattern (dairy and eggs allowed). Variants include lacto-vegetarian (dairy only) and ovo-vegetarian (eggs only). A separate, plant-only path is described in the Clean Vegan guide, fundamentally a different framework around B12 and nutrient sourcing.

A bowl of brown rice and quinoa, chickpeas, green lentils, roasted sweet potato and broccoli, spinach, cucumber and cherry tomatoes, a halved soft-boiled egg and sauerkraut, with a small dish of plain yogurt and a glass of water

Clean vs. Junk Vegetarian: A Huge Difference

Clean Vegetarian

Soaked beans and dal, sprouted grains, abundant vegetables (cooked & raw), pastured eggs, pasteurized milk and fermented dairy from grass-fed animals, ferments, olive oil, ghee, nuts and seeds.

Standard Vegetarian

Eggs, milk, cheese, refined-grain breads and pastas, occasional vegetables. Better than fast food, but often low in vegetables, fiber and the nutrients vegetarians most need to plan for.

Junk Vegetarian

Pasta, pizza (fresh or frozen), cheese sandwiches, vegetarian fast-food substitutes, sodas. Technically meatless, but high in refined grains, deep-fried foods and sugar. In a large US study, plant-based eating built on refined grains, sweets and sugary drinks was linked to higher, not lower, heart disease risk4.

The Framework

Six Core Principles

💧

1. Soak & Sprout

Beans, lentils and whole grains contain phytates, which reduce the absorption of minerals such as iron and zinc56. Soak legumes for several hours or overnight; sprout when possible; ferment when you can5. It is one of the clearest differences between traditional vegetarian cooking and modern shortcut versions.

🥚

2. Animal Foods, Choose Quality

If using eggs or dairy, choose pasture-raised, grass-fed, pasteurized and minimally processed. A single egg is a compact source of choline, B12, vitamin A, lutein and complete protein7.

🥬

3. Vegetables Are the Main Event

Vegetables at every meal, varied colors, both raw and cooked. Cruciferous (cabbage, broccoli, kale), alliums (garlic, onion, leek), leafy greens, root vegetables and herbs. Refined grains are not a substitute for vegetables.

🥒

4. Ferment Daily

Sauerkraut, kimchi, naturally fermented pickles, miso, kefir, full-fat yogurt with live cultures, kvass. Fermented foods support a diverse microbiome, may improve zinc absorption and add umami without needing meat58.

🫒

5. Quality Fats

Extra-virgin olive oil, cold-pressed flax (for omega-⁠3s), grass-fed butter or ghee, coconut oil, avocados, soaked nuts and seeds. Butter, ghee and coconut oil are high in saturated fat, which the Dietary Guidelines keep under 10% of daily calories; lean on olive oil, nuts and seeds day to day8. Limit deep-fried and packaged "vegetarian" food.

🧪

6. Track the Likely Gaps

B12, iron, zinc, iodine, omega-⁠3 EPA/DHA, vitamin D and choline are the nutrients vegetarians most often run short on, even with eggs and dairy89. Ask your clinician which are worth testing, and supplement strategically.

Food Framework

What to Eat & What to Skip

✅ Build Meals Around:

🫘 Soaked Legumes

Lentils (red, green, black, beluga), mung beans, chickpeas, black beans, adzuki, navy beans. Soak overnight; some cooks add a strip of kombu (it adds iodine, sometimes a lot, so skip it if you have a thyroid condition)10.

🌾 Properly Prepared Whole Grains

Brown rice, quinoa, millet, buckwheat, oats, farro, barley. Soak overnight or sprout.

🥬 Vegetables, Wide Variety

Leafy greens, cruciferous, alliums, roots, herbs, mushrooms. Both raw and cooked. Aim for vegetables at every meal, across multiple colors.

🥚 Pastured Eggs & Pasteurized Dairy

Pastured eggs most days, usually 1 to 2; if your LDL cholesterol runs high, ask your clinician how many suit you11. Pasteurized grass-fed dairy if tolerated (kefir, yogurt, ghee, aged cheeses). Watch tolerance; many adults digest lactose poorly, depending partly on family background.

🌰 Nuts & Seeds (Soaked)

Almonds (soaked), walnuts, pecans, Brazil nuts (very high in selenium, so one or two a day)12, pumpkin seeds (zinc), chia, flax, hemp. Soak or sprout when possible to reduce phytates.

🥒 Fermented Foods

Sauerkraut, kimchi, fermented pickles, kefir, yogurt with live cultures, miso, tempeh, natto.

❌ Limit or Skip:

🍟 Deep-Fried & Ultra-Processed Foods

Fried food and packaged vegetarian products. Cook with olive oil at home instead.

🌾 Refined Grains

White flour, white pasta, commercial bread, breakfast cereals, crackers. These dominate the "Standard Vegetarian" plate and crowd out vegetables.

🍬 Refined Sugar

Cane sugar, HFCS, agave, "natural" syrups in commercial yogurts and granolas. Use small amounts of raw honey, real maple or dates instead.

🥫 Conventional Dairy

Milk and cheese from grain-fed herds. If using dairy, choose grass-fed, organic, pasteurized or fermented forms. Test your own tolerance.

📦 Processed Mock Meats

Vegetarian "chicken nuggets," sausages, processed soy-protein products. Usually highly processed, often with added fats, sugars and salt8.

🌶️ Unsoaked Legumes & Grains

Soaking and sprouting lower phytate, which can modestly improve absorption of iron, zinc and calcium1314, and many people find soaked beans easier to digest.

A Day on the Plate

Sample 1-⁠Day Clean Vegetarian Pattern

7:00 to 8:00 AM · Breakfast
🥣 Morning Plate

Overnight-soaked steel-cut oats cooked in water, topped with grass-fed yogurt or kefir, 2 tbsp ground flax, a handful of soaked almonds, 1/2 cup berries and a drizzle of raw honey. Side: 2 pastured eggs scrambled in ghee with sautéed spinach. Or: vegetable omelet with avocado.

Vegetarian morning plate with soaked oats, berries, ground flax and pastured eggs with greens

🥣 Sample Morning Plate

Soaked oats · grass-fed yogurt or kefir · ground flax · soaked almonds · berries · pastured eggs with sautéed greens. Whole-grain carbohydrate paired with high-quality protein and fat for steady morning energy.

12:30 to 1:30 PM · Lunch
🥗 Midday Plate

Hearty lentil soup (red lentils soaked overnight, cooked with onion, carrot, celery, kombu, turmeric, cumin) · big mixed salad with greens, cucumber, tomato, pumpkin seeds, olive oil and lemon · 2 tablespoons sauerkraut · small piece of pasteurized goat cheese (optional).

Vegetarian midday plate with lentil soup, mixed salad, pumpkin seeds and sauerkraut

🥗 Sample Midday Plate

Soaked-lentil soup · big mixed salad · pumpkin seeds · sauerkraut · optional pasteurized goat cheese. The bean + fermented + salad combination: fiber, a good mix of plant proteins8, polyphenols and live cultures in one meal.

6:30 to 7:30 PM · Dinner
🍛 Evening Plate

Vegetable stir-fry (broccoli, mushroom, bell pepper, ginger, garlic) in ghee · 3/4 cup brown rice (soaked overnight before cooking) · spiced chickpeas (soaked overnight, simmered with garam masala) · cucumber raita with cultured yogurt · steamed greens with olive oil and lemon.

Vegetarian evening plate with a vegetable stir-fry, brown rice and steamed greens with lemon, beside small bowls of spiced chickpeas and cucumber raita

🍛 Sample Evening Plate

Vegetable stir-fry · soaked brown rice · spiced chickpeas · cucumber-yogurt raita · steamed greens. A balanced Indian-influenced vegetarian plate: warm, well-cooked, easy to digest before sleep.

9:00 PM · Optional Closing
🌙 Pre-Sleep

Chamomile or tulsi tea. Finish dinner a few hours before sleep; if you are still hungry later, one or two soaked Brazil nuts (selenium + magnesium). Brazil nuts are very high in selenium, so count these with any you ate earlier in the day12.

Practical Guardrails

The Six Most Common Pitfalls

🧀 Cheese & Bread as Staples

A common drift: vegetarian becomes "cheese sandwich and pasta with cheese." Vegetables shrink to garnish status. Refocus on legumes + grains + vegetables; cheese is a condiment.

💊 No B12 Strategy

Even with eggs and dairy, low B12 status is common among vegetarians1516. Test serum B12, MMA and homocysteine15. Supplement B12 as needed.

🩸 Low Iron, Especially in Women

Plant (non-heme) iron is less bioavailable6. Pair iron-rich plants with vitamin C (lemon, peppers, berries)6. Have ferritin checked periodically, especially if you menstruate or are pregnant68.

🐟 Low Omega-⁠3 EPA/DHA

Plant ALA (flax, chia, walnut) converts poorly to EPA/DHA in most people17. Eat flax, chia or walnuts daily; an algae-oil supplement is the direct vegetarian source of EPA and DHA17. Experts differ on whether vegetarians need one13.

🥦 Skipping Soaking

Many modern vegetarians skip the traditional soaking and sprouting steps. Soaking lowers phytate5, and many people find it eases bloating. Soak everything you can overnight.

🥖 Refined-Carb Drift

When meat goes, refined carbs can quietly expand. Watch for white pasta, white rice, sweet baked goods sneaking in. Replace with properly prepared whole grains.

Foundational Supplements

Supplements Often Helpful on Clean Vegetarian

SupplementWhyTypical DoseNotes
Vitamin B12Even with eggs & dairy, intake often runs low1516. Critical for nerve and red-blood-cell function15.500 to 1,000 mcg, oral or sublingual (they work equally well), 2 to 3x/week15Test serum B12, MMA and homocysteine periodically8.
Iron (if ferritin low)Plant (non-heme) iron is absorbed less efficiently than heme iron, so vegetarians need about 1.8 times more iron6.25 to 50 mg elemental iron (bisglycinate) on empty stomach + vitamin COnly supplement if ferritin is low. Too much iron causes stomach upset and, in people with hemochromatosis, iron overload6. The top of this range sits above the 45 mg/day tolerable upper intake level for adults6. That is appropriate only when correcting a confirmed deficiency under clinical supervision, not as general supplementation. Test ferritin first, and retest rather than staying on it indefinitely. Take it at a different time of day from zinc, since 25 mg of iron or more can reduce zinc absorption6. Keep iron out of children's reach; accidental overdose can kill a small child6.
ZincLegumes and grains contain zinc, but their phytates bind it, so less is absorbed5.15 to 25 mg zinc picolinate/​bisglycinate5Take with food. Long-term zinc requires copper balance5.
Algae EPA/DHAPlant ALA converts inefficiently to EPA/DHA17. Algae oil is a direct source17.500 to 1,000 mg combined EPA+DHA daily17Look for a third-party-tested product. In heart trials, omega-⁠3 supplements (fish oil) raised the risk of atrial fibrillation, an irregular heartbeat, more so above 1 g a day18, so check this dose with your clinician first.
Vitamin D3Some people run low on vitamin D, especially with little sun19.Set the dose with your clinician; most adults need no blood test firstSome people add K2 MK-⁠7 (100 to 200 mcg)20. If you take warfarin, clear any vitamin K supplement with the clinician managing your anticoagulation before starting or stopping it: vitamin K antagonizes warfarin, and changing your intake destabilizes the INR20. Consistency matters more than avoidance20. This does not apply in the same way to direct oral anticoagulants such as apixaban or rivaroxaban, but tell your prescriber about any supplement you take21.
CholineEggs are among the richest vegetarian sources; if egg intake is low, choline often is too78.Sunflower lecithin 1 to 2 tbsp a day, or alpha-GPC 300 mg7, the latter only on clinical advice, as it has been linked to higher stroke risk22Critical for liver, brain and pregnancy7. Alpha-GPC has been linked to higher stroke risk in one very large observational study of adults over 50; lecithin or eggs are the gentler route22.
IodineDairy and eggs supply iodine, but amounts vary; if you also use little iodized salt, iodine can run low10.150 to 300 mcg10; a quarter sheet of nori provides far less iodine than thatHashimoto's patients should consult a clinician before dosing iodine10.
Magnesium GlycinateWhole-grain and legume diets are usually rich in magnesium9, so this one is optional; glycinate is a form many people find gentle on the gut300 to 500 mg elemental, at bedtime (or split AM/PM)Soak/sprout grains and legumes to also unlock more dietary magnesium. The top of this range is above the 350 mg/day upper intake level for supplemental magnesium; above that, diarrhea is common. With kidney disease, take it only on your clinician's advice.
Zinc CarnosinePlant zinc is bound to phytates and absorbs less efficiently; this is an optional alternative to the plain zinc above, not an addition to it75 to 150 mg/day (delivers about 17 to 34 mg elemental zinc)Take with food. After 8 to 12 weeks, drop to the lower dose to avoid copper depletion. Pair with 2 mg copper if used long term523.
Suitability

Who Benefits Most, and Who Should Be Careful

💪 Often Benefits

Cardiovascular risk reduction

Lower LDL cholesterol and blood pressure in trials2425, and lower CRP, a marker of inflammation, in observational studies, though the inflammation difference is small in vegetarians26; all of it works best when refined carbs and deep-fried foods stay out.

Blood sugar control

In people with type 2 diabetes, vegetarian diets modestly lowered HbA1c in a meta-analysis of trials27.

Spiritual or ethical alignment

For practitioners of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or other traditions where meat-avoidance carries deep meaning.

Reducing environmental footprint

Lower land, water and emissions impact than conventional meat-centric diets2829.

Gut microbiome diversity

High fiber and fermented food intake supports a diverse gut microbiome830.

⚠️ Use Caution or Avoid

Iron-deficiency anemia history

Have your ferritin checked regularly; pair iron-rich plants with vitamin C, and supplement if testing shows you need it6.

Pregnancy & breastfeeding

Needs careful planning for B12, iron, choline, omega-⁠3 and protein71729. Work with a knowledgeable practitioner.

Growing children

Well planned, it suits children, but energy, protein, B12, iron, zinc and omega-⁠3 must be deliberately covered29.

SIBO or active gut inflammation

Beans and cabbage-family vegetables can worsen gas and bloating at first. Get symptoms under control with your clinician first, then expand the plate.

Eating disorder history

"Going vegetarian" sometimes masks restrictive patterns31. Work with a clinician.

Next Steps

The Tradition Behind the Plate

Vegetarian eating has deep roots in some of the world's oldest religious and culinary traditions3. The clean version honors that tradition: soaked, sprouted, fermented, seasonal, locally sourced where possible.

← Back to Lifestyle Library Compare to Clean Vegan →

References & Evidence Notes

Each numbered entry below is either a source you can follow or a note setting out what the evidence does and does not support. Both are numbered together so the markers in the text line up.

Last reviewed October 20, 2026. This page is nutrition education, not medical advice, and it does not replace your doctor. The top of the iron range on this page sits above the adult upper limit and is only for correcting a confirmed deficiency under clinical supervision, and iron supplements must be kept out of children's reach. If you take warfarin, clear any vitamin K supplement with the clinician managing it, and if you have Hashimoto's, consult a clinician before taking iodine.

  1. Jones JM. In U.S., 4% Identify as Vegetarian, 1% as Vegan. Gallup. August 24, 2023. news.gallup.com. Gallup's July 2023 telephone poll of 1,015 US adults, with a margin of error of plus or minus 4 points. It is the source for the share of US adults who say they are vegetarian; it gives no head count. ↩
  2. International Food Information Council. 2023 IFIC Food & Health Survey. 2023. ific.org. An online survey of 1,022 Americans aged 18 to 80. Its chart of eating patterns followed in the past year is the source for the 1% who said they had followed a vegetarian diet. ↩
  3. Leitzmann C. Vegetarian nutrition: past, present, future. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014. PubMed 24898226. A review of the history of vegetarian eating: major religions, among them Hinduism and Buddhism, have recommended a vegetarian way of life since their beginnings. ↩
  4. Satija A, et al. Healthful and Unhealthful Plant-Based Diets and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in U.S. Adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017. PubMed 28728684. An observational study of US health professionals: plant-based eating weighted toward refined grains, sweets and sugary drinks was linked to higher heart disease risk (hazard ratio 1.32). It measured plant-based eating in general, not vegetarian diets as such. ↩
  5. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Zinc: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The US government's reference summary on zinc. It is the source for phytates in beans, grains and seeds lowering zinc absorption, for soaking helping and for fermented foods perhaps helping, for the adult upper limit of 40 mg, and for long-term excess zinc causing copper deficiency. ↩
  6. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Iron: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The source for plant (non-heme) iron being less well absorbed than heme iron, for vitamin C helping, for vegetarians needing 1.8 times more iron, for the groups at risk of too little, for the harms of too much, for the adult upper limit of 45 mg, for 25 mg of iron or more reducing zinc absorption and for accidental iron poisoning in children. ↩
  7. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Choline: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The source for the choline in one egg, for eggs being among the richest sources, for choline's roles in the liver and in early brain development, for most pregnant women getting less than the recommended amount, and for the adult upper limit of 3,500 mg. ↩
  8. US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2025-⁠2030. January 2026. cdn.realfood.gov. Its section for vegetarians is the source for the nutrients vegetarian diets often fall short in, for checking nutrient status periodically, for limiting highly processed vegetarian foods and for mixing plant proteins. Elsewhere it keeps saturated fat at or below 10% of daily calories and says fermented and high-fiber foods support a diverse microbiome. ↩
  9. Neufingerl N, Eilander A. Nutrient Intake and Status in Adults Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2021. PubMed 35010904. A review of 141 studies in adults, mostly vegetarian and vegan, compared with meat-eaters: lower intake and status of B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine and calcium and lower EPA/DHA intake, but higher magnesium intake. The authors work for a food company. ↩
  10. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Iodine: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The source for the very wide range of iodine in seaweeds, for dairy and eggs as sources whose iodine varies, for the adult upper limit of 1,100 mcg, and for people with autoimmune thyroid disease reacting to amounts that are safe for others. ↩
  11. Carson JAS, et al. Dietary Cholesterol and Cardiovascular Risk: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020. PubMed 31838890. A review of the evidence: observational studies generally show no clear link between dietary cholesterol and heart disease, but most meta-analyses of intervention studies tie higher cholesterol intake to higher LDL. It does not set a number of eggs. ↩
  12. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Selenium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. One ounce of Brazil nuts, 6 to 8 nuts, gives 544 mcg of selenium, against a US adult upper limit of 400 mcg a day; the sheet also reports a European adult limit of 255 mcg a day, set in 2023. ↩
  13. Agnoli C, et al. Position paper on vegetarian diets from the working group of the Italian Society of Human Nutrition. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2017. PubMed 29174030. Soaking, sprouting and sourdough leavening lower phytate and can improve the absorption of calcium, iron and zinc. It also holds that vegetarians can keep good omega-⁠3 status from regular plant ALA sources with limited linoleic acid, which is why experts differ on algae oil. ↩
  14. Hurrell R, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010. PubMed 20200263. A review: single factors change iron absorption less in studies of many meals than in studies of one meal. ↩
  15. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Updated July 2, 2025. ods.od.nih.gov. The source for vegetarians who eat dairy or eggs still being at higher risk of B12 deficiency, for MMA and homocysteine as markers of B12 status, for B12's roles in the nervous system and red blood cell formation, and for oral and sublingual B12 working equally well, with about 2% of a 500 mcg dose and 1.3% of a 1,000 mcg dose absorbed. ↩
  16. Pawlak R, et al. How prevalent is vitamin B12 deficiency among vegetarians? Nutr Rev. 2013. PubMed 23356638. A review of studies of B12 status in vegetarians, which found depletion or deficiency whatever the type of vegetarian diet. ↩
  17. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Omega-⁠3 Fatty Acids: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The source for the body's very limited conversion of plant ALA to EPA and DHA, for EPA and DHA being made first by microalgae, for algal oil as the vegetarian product, for the FDA's view that up to 5 g a day of EPA and DHA from supplements is safe (there is no official intake recommendation), and for pregnant vegetarians asking a health care provider about EPA/DHA. ↩
  18. Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, Cook NR, Manson JE, Albert CM. Effect of long-term marine omega-⁠3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2021;144(25):1981-⁠1990. PubMed 34612056. Seven trials with 81,210 people followed for about 5 years: omega-⁠3 supplements were linked to a higher risk of atrial fibrillation (hazard ratio 1.25), more so in trials of more than 1 g a day (1.49), and the risk rose with each additional gram. ↩
  19. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Vitamin D: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Updated June 27, 2025. ods.od.nih.gov. In US national data from 2011 to 2014, 18% of people were at risk of having too little vitamin D and 5% at risk of deficiency; diets low in vitamin D are more common in ovo-vegetarians and people who avoid milk. ↩
  20. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Vitamin K: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Updated March 29, 2021. ods.od.nih.gov. No upper limit was set for vitamin K because its potential for harm is low, and people taking warfarin need a consistent vitamin K intake, because sudden changes raise or lower the drug's effect. ↩
  21. Kampouraki E, Kamali F. Dietary implications for patients receiving long-term oral anticoagulation therapy for treatment and prevention of thromboembolic disease. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2017. PubMed 28635328. A review of diet and long-term blood thinners. Whether vitamin K in the diet affects the response to direct oral anticoagulants in people remained to be investigated. ↩
  22. Lee G, et al. Association of L-α Glycerylphosphorylcholine With Subsequent Stroke Risk After 10 Years. JAMA Netw Open. 2021. PubMed 34817582. An observational study of about 12 million Korean adults aged 50 and older, followed for 10 years: alpha-GPC use was linked to a higher risk of stroke, rising with the dose. It cannot show cause, and a correction to the paper was published in 2026. ↩
  23. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Copper: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov. The adult upper limit for copper is 10,000 mcg a day, so the 2 mg on this page sits well within it. ↩
  24. Koch CA, et al. Vegetarian or vegan diets and blood lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Eur Heart J. 2023. PubMed 37226630. Thirty randomized trials in adults: vegetarian and vegan diets lowered total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B compared with diets that included meat. ↩
  25. Yokoyama Y, et al. Vegetarian diets and blood pressure: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014. PubMed 24566947. In seven trials in adults, vegetarian diets lowered systolic blood pressure by 4.8 and diastolic by 2.2 mmHg. ↩
  26. Menzel J, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers. Sci Rep. 2020. PubMed 33303765. Observational studies in adults linked vegan and vegetarian diets with lower CRP, a marker of inflammation, and the association was less pronounced in vegetarians. ↩
  27. Yokoyama Y, et al. Vegetarian diets and glycemic control in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2014. PubMed 25414824. Six trials in 255 people with type 2 diabetes: vegetarian diets lowered HbA1c by 0.39 points, and fasting glucose fell but not significantly. Insulin sensitivity was not measured. ↩
  28. Poore J, Nemecek T. Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science. 2018. PubMed 29853680. A worldwide analysis of the environmental impacts of foods: even the lowest-impact animal products typically had higher impacts than vegetable substitutes. Dairy and eggs carry real footprints too. ↩
  29. Melina V, Craig W, Levin S. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016. PubMed 27886704. The Academy's position: appropriately planned vegetarian diets suit every stage of life, including pregnancy, breastfeeding, infancy, childhood and adolescence, and plant-based diets use fewer natural resources. ↩
  30. Wastyk HC, et al. Gut-microbiota-targeted diets modulate human immune status. Cell. 2021. PubMed 34256014. A 17-⁠week trial in adults: a diet high in fermented foods raised gut microbiota diversity and lowered markers of inflammation. It was small, with 18 people in each group. ↩
  31. Sergentanis TN, et al. Vegetarian Diets and Eating Disorders in Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review. Children (Basel). 2020. PubMed 33379220. A review of mostly cross-sectional studies in adolescents and young adults, which found vegetarianism associated with eating disorders; the authors say the studies cannot show which causes which. ↩