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Pneumonia & Bronchitis

Lung inflammation from bacterial, viral or fungal infection (pneumonia) or inflammation of bronchial tubes (bronchitis). Bacterial pneumonia is treated with prescribed antibiotics, and vaccines prevent some forms; rest, fluids and good nutrition support recovery10.

Respiratory Evidence-Based

Last updated:

Definition

What Are Pneumonia & Bronchitis?

Pneumonia is infection of the lung's air sacs (alveoli), causing inflammation, fluid accumulation and impaired oxygen exchange. Bronchitis is inflammation of the larger airways (bronchi) without involvement of lung tissue. Both cause cough and respiratory symptoms but differ significantly in severity and treatment.

Pneumonia is classified by setting: community-acquired (CAP, most common), hospital-acquired (HAP, >48h after admission), ventilator-associated (VAP) and aspiration pneumonia. Causes range from bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae most common; also Mycoplasma, Legionella, Chlamydia) to viruses (influenza, RSV, COVID-⁠19, rhinovirus) to fungi (in immunocompromised).

Acute bronchitis is almost always viral (~90%) and self-limited. Antibiotics are not helpful1 for typical acute bronchitis but are widely overprescribed. Chronic bronchitis is part of COPD, distinct from acute infection. Adults 65 and older are at higher risk of serious pneumonia10; vaccines3 (pneumococcal, flu, COVID) and timely treatment save lives.

โš ๏ธ Vaccines Save Lives: Pneumococcal vaccine is recommended in the US for all adults 50 or older and adults 19 to 49 with certain risk conditions, and in the UK for adults 65 and over and people at higher risk18. Get an annual flu vaccine and stay current on COVID-⁠19 vaccination. These reduce pneumonia incidence and severity3.
A head and chest with both lungs: a normal pale lung, an inflamed red lung with inflamed bronchial tubes, mucus in the airway and a close-up of the alveoli

Types of Pneumonia / Bronchitis

Acute Bronchitis (Viral)

Self-limited cough lasting 1 to 3 weeks. Almost always viral. Treatment: supportive only. Antibiotics overprescribed, not helpful for typical cases. Honey, hydration, rest.

Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)

Most common pneumonia. S. pneumoniae most frequent cause. Most treatable with outpatient antibiotics. Severity stratified by CURB-⁠65 or PSI score.

Severe / Hospital / Aspiration

HAP, VAP, aspiration or severe CAP. Higher mortality. Resistant organisms common. Hospital admission with broad-spectrum antibiotics ยฑ ICU care.

By the Numbers

Pneumonia & Bronchitis by the Numbers

1.2M
US visits to emergency departments with pneumonia due to an infectious organism as the primary diagnosis (2022)21
~42K
US deaths from pneumonia in 2024 21
~90%
of acute bronchitis is caused by viruses, which is why antibiotics rarely help1
About 2 in 3
people with acute bronchitis are given antibiotics, which add little for an illness that is usually viral1
6 months
for most adults to feel back to normal after community-acquired pneumonia; tiredness can still be present at 3 months22
65+
adults 65 and older are at higher risk of pneumonia and of more serious illness, as are children 2 and younger10
Signs & Symptoms

Symptoms of Pneumonia & Bronchitis

Pneumonia is generally more severe than bronchitis. Watch for warning signs that indicate severe disease.

SymptomWhat happens
Pneumonia Symptoms
Productive CoughOften productive of green, yellow or rust-colored sputum. Sudden onset distinguishes it from chronic conditions. Coughing up blood needs emergency care (see Hemoptysis below).
Fever & ChillsHigh fever (often >102.2ยฐF / 39ยฐC), shaking chills (rigors). May be absent in older adults (more often presents with confusion).
Shortness of Breath & TachypneaIncreased respiratory rate, work of breathing. Air hunger. Most concerning when at rest. Indicates significant lung involvement. Go to an emergency department, or call 911, for breathlessness at rest, a fast breathing rate, chest pain, blue lips or fingertips, new confusion or an inability to keep fluids down. In an older adult, confusion or a fall may be the only sign of pneumonia, with no fever at all. Do not wait it out.2
Pleuritic Chest PainSharp pain worsened by breathing in or coughing. Localized to affected lung area. Indicates pleural inflammation.
Red Flags / Severe Disease
Cyanosis / Low O2 SaturationBlue lips/fingertips. A pulse oximeter reading below 92%11, or below the target a clinician has set for someone with COPD. Hypoxemia. EMERGENCY: call 911 or go to the ER immediately.
Confusion (Especially in Older Adults)May be the only symptom in older adults. Hypoxia, sepsis. New-onset confusion in older adults with respiratory symptoms: always think pneumonia.
Rapid Heart Rate, Low BPSigns of sepsis from pneumonia. Tachycardia >125, hypotension. Aggressive resuscitation + IV antibiotics needed.
Hemoptysis (Coughing Blood)Coughing up blood with pneumonia needs emergency care: call 911 or go to the ER14. Doctors will also rule out tuberculosis, lung cancer and a blood clot in the lung (PE).
Causes

Causes of Pneumonia & Bronchitis

Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs, most often by bacteria or viruses; age, habits and other illnesses decide how likely it is and how serious it becomes10.

CauseHow It Contributes to Pneumonia & BronchitisWhat Helps
BacteriaBacteria are a common cause in adults, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is the most common in the United States; bacterial pneumonia can follow a cold or flu10Prescribed antibiotics (taken for the whole course) and the pneumococcal vaccine, which lowers the chance of pneumonia from this bacterium15
VirusesFlu and the common cold are the most common causes of viral pneumonia in adults and RSV in young children; the virus that causes COVID-⁠19 can cause it too10; about 90% of acute bronchitis is viral1Antibiotics do not treat viruses; an antiviral is sometimes prescribed, and flu and COVID-⁠19 vaccines help prevent these forms15
Food, drink or saliva going into the lungsA stroke, dementia, Parkinson's disease or heavy sedation can affect coughing and swallowing, so material goes down the windpipe and into the lungs10A swallowing assessment4; if swallowing is a problem, smaller meals of thickened food and sleeping with the head of the bed raised10
AgeAdults 65 and older and children 2 and younger are at higher risk of pneumonia and of more serious illness, and older adults may feel weak or suddenly confused rather than feverish10Vaccination on your national schedule, and prompt care for new confusion in an older adult, as the symptoms section says
Smoking, alcohol and drugsSmoking makes it harder to clear mucus from the airways, and alcohol or drugs weaken the immune system and raise the chance of inhaling saliva or vomit10Stopping smoking, which lowers the chance of pneumonia14, and avoiding alcohol during illness and recovery, as the diet section advises
Long-term conditions and a weakened immune systemLung diseases such as asthma and COPD, heart failure, diabetes, malnutrition, HIV, chemotherapy and long-term steroid medicines all raise the risk10Recommended vaccines, good management of the long-term condition, and the protein and energy the diet section describes for anyone who is undernourished4
Diagnosis

How Pneumonia & Bronchitis Are Diagnosed

TestWhat it shows
Imaging & Bedside
Chest X-RayStandard initial imaging. Confirms pneumonia (consolidation, infiltrates), assesses severity, identifies complications (effusion, abscess). May be normal early.
CT Chest (Selected)When a chest X-ray is unclear, suspected complications, treatment failure, suspected alternative diagnosis (cancer, PE). Higher sensitivity.
Lung UltrasoundEmerging bedside tool. High sensitivity for pneumonia. No radiation. Useful in pregnant patients, children.
Pulse OximetryCritical bedside assessment. Below 92% on room air is the safer threshold for hospital care; outpatients sent home below 90% had higher 30-⁠day death and admission rates11.
Labs & Microbiology
CBC, CRP, ProcalcitoninLeukocytosis (bacterial), lymphopenia (viral). Procalcitonin distinguishes bacterial from viral, guides antibiotic decisions.
Sputum Gram Stain + CultureIn hospitalized patients. Identifies pathogen + antibiotic sensitivities. Often non-diagnostic in real-world practice.
Respiratory Viral PCR PanelDetects influenza, RSV, COVID-⁠19, etc. Critical during respiratory virus season. May avoid unnecessary antibiotics if viral cause confirmed.
Urinary AntigensStreptococcus pneumoniae and Legionella urinary antigens. Rapid bedside testing. Useful in severe CAP.
Treatment Comparison

Conventional and Holistic Treatment for Pneumonia & Bronchitis

๐ŸŒฟ HOLISTIC
๐Ÿ’Š CONVENTIONAL
๐ŸŒฟ

Holistic / Functional Approach

Supportive care for bronchitis, and support alongside prescribed treatment for pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia requires antibiotics.

Acute Bronchitis
Supportive care; about 90% of cases are viral, and antibiotics give no meaningful benefit in uncomplicated cases1
Mild Viral Pneumonia
Supportive care and monitoring
Bacterial Pneumonia
Antibiotics essential + supportive holistic measures
Prevention
Vaccines3 and stopping smoking

Full Holistic Approach Includes

  • Rest; sleep supports immune function10. Reduce activity until fever and tiredness settle.
  • Hydration thins secretions. About 8 to 10 cups (2 to 2.4 L) daily unless restricted. Warm liquids soothe.
  • Honey for cough: reasonable evidence shows it eases cough in children over 1 year5, and 1 to 2 tsp in a hot lemon drink soothes a sore throat14. NOT for children under 1 year.
  • Vitamin D, correct a deficiency; pooled trials once showed modest protection against respiratory infections, but a 2025 update found no clear effect, and it is not a pneumonia treatment12. Set the dose with your clinician; most adults need no blood test first. Dosing limits: the adult tolerable upper intake level is 4,000 IU/day. The Endocrine Society's 2024 guideline found no clear evidence for an optimal target level; the National Academies set sufficiency at 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L). Any dose above 4,000 IU/day needs a blood test and a clinician.
  • Zinc lozenges, at the first respiratory symptoms; may shorten a cold16
  • Vitamin C 500 to 1,000 mg daily, evidence in pneumonia is weak5
  • N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC), mucolytic, thins thick secretions
  • Steam inhalation, for comfort; never for children, because of the risk of scalding14
  • Elderberry syrup, may relieve cold and flu symptoms in preliminary research13; caution with severe lower respiratory disease
  • Garlic6, antimicrobial in laboratory studies only; supplements can raise bleeding risk with blood thinners13
  • Quit smoking, most important modifiable risk factor
  • Early ambulation, even at home; helps clear secretions, prevents complications
  • Deep breathing exercises, with a hand-held breathing trainer (incentive spirometer) if available; may help prevent atelectasis (partial collapse of the lung)
โœ… Antibiotics Are Overprescribed: About two-thirds of acute bronchitis patients get antibiotics that add little1, driving resistance and side effects. For bacterial pneumonia, antibiotics are essential: take the whole course as prescribed10.
Supplement Protocol

Evidence-Based Supplements for Pneumonia & Bronchitis

Evidence for supplements in pneumonia is limited, and weak for vitamin C5. Most important: prevention via vaccines3.

SupplementWhat it is forTypical rangeTimingNotes & cautions
Vitamin D3Pooled trials once found daily or weekly vitamin D modestly lowered respiratory infections, most in the very deficient, but a 2025 update found no clear effect; it is not a pneumonia treatment12.Set the dose with your clinician; most adults need no blood test firstWith fat mealA higher dose is only for a deficiency found on a blood test, set by your clinician.
ZincZinc lozenges may shorten a cold if started early; zinc does not seem to speed recovery from pneumonia16.30 to 50 mg/day during acute illnessEmpty stomach (lozenges); with some antibiotics used for pneumonia, take the antibiotic at least 2 hours before or 4 to 6 hours after zinc, and ask your pharmacist16Acetate or gluconate lozenges are most effective, and lozenges act locally in the throat. The adult tolerable upper intake level for zinc is 40 mg/day. Short courses above that during acute illness are common practice, but sustained high-dose zinc causes copper deficiency, so keep it to days rather than weeks and do not take it continuously.5
N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC)Mucolytic, thins respiratory secretions. Glutathione precursor.600 to 1,800 mg/dayDivided dosesEspecially useful with thick sputum. May cause sulfur smell initially.
Vitamin CEvidence in pneumonia is weak5.500 to 1,000 mg/dayDivided dosesThe adult upper limit is 2,000 mg a day; higher doses such as 3 to 5 g often cause diarrhea, nausea and cramps17. The body converts vitamin C to oxalate, so if you have had kidney stones, ask your clinician first.
ProbioticsOften taken after antibiotic courses.10 to 30 billion CFU/day, multi-strainWith or without foodContinue 2 to 4 weeks after antibiotic courses.
QuercetinStudied in the laboratory only; not shown to help pneumonia.500 to 1,000 mg/dayWith foodOften combined with bromelain for absorption. Check with your pharmacist before taking it alongside antibiotics or other medicines.
Elderberry (Sambucus)Preliminary research suggests it may relieve cold and flu symptoms13.Per product label (typically 1 tablespoon, 15 mL, of syrup 2 to 4 times a day)With foodUse early in viral infections. Caution in severe pneumonia. Use only prepared products, since raw or unripe berries are poisonous, and check with your clinician if you take other medicines13.
What to Expect

What to Expect Over Time

Prescribed treatment is what clears bacterial pneumonia; rest, fluids and food support recovery around it.

Treatment and supportive care, together
First Weeks

Bacterial pneumonia is treated with prescribed antibiotics: take the whole course even if you feel better, because stopping too soon can let it come back10. Viral pneumonia is managed differently, since antibiotics do not treat viruses; an antiviral is sometimes prescribed. Most people feel better within 1 to 3 days of antibiotics, and fever should go away within a week22. Rest, and drink plenty of fluids unless your clinician limits them15.

Months 1 to 3

Chest pain and phlegm should have eased substantially by 4 weeks, and cough and breathlessness by 6 weeks22. Most people stay tired for about a month, some longer, so build activity back gradually and eat enough protein, as the diet section describes10. Older adults and people with long-term conditions are at higher risk of complications.

Months 3 to 12

By 3 months most symptoms have resolved, though tiredness may remain, and most adults feel back to normal by 6 months22. A follow-up chest X-ray may be offered if symptoms persist or you smoke.

Long Term

Vaccines prevent some forms: the pneumococcal vaccine against Streptococcus pneumoniae, the flu vaccine against pneumonia caused by flu, and the COVID-⁠19 vaccine against severe COVID-⁠19 pneumonia15. Tell your clinician if pneumonia keeps coming back.

When to Seek Care

Call 911 or go to emergency care for severe breathlessness, chest pain, new confusion, blue lips or face, coughing up blood or a very fast heartbeat, and do not drive yourself14. Contact your doctor if you are no better after 2 to 3 days of antibiotics, or if symptoms worsen or fever returns15.

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Next Steps

Prevention First, Then Targeted Treatment

Vaccines and smoking cessation reduce pneumonia risk, and good nutrition supports recovery34. When infection occurs, distinguish viral from bacterial: antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia save lives; antibiotics for viral bronchitis cause harm without benefit. Watch for warning signs and seek care for severe symptoms.

Explore Asthma โ†’ Explore Tuberculosis โ†’

References & Evidence Notes

Each numbered entry below is either a source you can follow or a note setting out what the evidence does and does not support. Both are numbered together so the markers in the text line up.

Last reviewed October 20, 2026. Supplement entries are cross-checked against the NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health and the Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center.7 One distinction matters: most acute bronchitis is viral and does not need antibiotics, while bacterial pneumonia does. Nothing here treats pneumonia. What nutrition can do is support recovery and reduce the risk of the deconditioning and weight loss that follow a serious chest infection, particularly in older adults. Know when to go in: breathlessness at rest, a fast breathing rate, chest pain, blue lips or fingertips, an inability to keep fluids down or new confusion. In an older adult, confusion or a fall may be the only sign, with no fever at all. Pneumonia remains a leading cause of death in older people, and vaccination against pneumococcus, influenza and COVID-⁠19 is the most effective preventive measure available.

  1. On the distinction: pneumonia is infection of the lung parenchyma with consolidation, while acute bronchitis is inflammation of the larger airways and is reported to be viral in roughly 90% of cases. Antibiotics for uncomplicated acute bronchitis provide no meaningful benefit and cause harm through side effects and resistance, and this remains one of the most common sources of unnecessary prescribing: a review found that about 90% of cases are caused by viruses and that antibiotics are still given to about two-thirds of patients, PubMed 27219826. ↩
  2. On severity and when to seek care: severity tools such as CURB-⁠65 use confusion, urea, respiratory rate, blood pressure and age, which reflects how much those features matter; in its derivation cohorts, mortality climbed from under 1% at a score of zero to over 40% at a score of four, PubMed 12728155. Confusion, a respiratory rate of 30 or more, low blood pressure, low oxygen saturation and age over 65 all mark higher risk. Presentation in older adults is frequently atypical, with confusion, functional decline or falls rather than fever and cough, which delays diagnosis. ↩
  3. On vaccination: pneumococcal vaccination, annual influenza vaccination and COVID-⁠19 vaccination reduce pneumonia incidence and severity. They are recommended for older adults and for people with diabetes, immunosuppression or chronic lung, heart, liver or kidney disease. Influenza frequently precedes bacterial pneumonia, so preventing one prevents the other. ↩
  4. On nutrition during and after: acute infection increases protein requirements, and older adults commonly lose muscle during and after hospitalization for pneumonia, which predicts poorer recovery and readmission. Adequate protein and energy intake and early mobilization matter more than any specific supplement. Swallowing assessment is important where aspiration is suspected, since aspiration pneumonia recurs if the cause is not addressed. ↩
  5. On zinc and vitamin C, with their limits: zinc lozenges started early may shorten common colds; evidence in pneumonia is limited, and evidence for vitamin C preventing or treating pneumonia is weak. The adult tolerable upper intake level for zinc is 40 mg/day, and sustained intake above it causes copper deficiency, which can produce anemia and neurological symptoms; a systematic review of reported cases found the blood abnormalities usually reversed after stopping zinc, while neurological damage recovered more slowly and sometimes incompletely, PubMed 42087025. Short courses during acute illness are common practice; continuous high-dose use is not. Honey has reasonable evidence for cough in children over one year and should never be given below that age. ↩
  6. On garlic and other antimicrobial foods: garlic and several culinary herbs show antimicrobial activity in laboratory conditions. That does not translate into treating an established lung infection, and no food substitutes for antibiotics in bacterial pneumonia. They are worth eating; they are not treatment. ↩
  7. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NIH), nccih.nih.gov, and the Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center, lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic. ↩
  8. On outpatient antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia: the 2019 American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America guideline recommends amoxicillin 1 g three times daily, or doxycycline, or a macrolide only where pneumococcal resistance to macrolides is below 25%, for healthy adults without comorbidities. For adults with comorbidities it recommends amoxicillin-clavulanate or a cephalosporin combined with a macrolide or doxycycline, or a respiratory fluoroquinolone alone. It recommends treating for at least 5 days and until the patient is stable, for 7 days where MRSA or Pseudomonas is suspected or proven, and suggests not routinely adding anaerobic coverage for suspected aspiration pneumonia unless a lung abscess or empyema is suspected, PubMed 31573350. ↩
  9. On influenza antivirals: CDC guidance states that clinical benefit is greatest when antiviral treatment starts early, especially within 48 hours of illness onset, and that early treatment can shorten fever and illness. In hospitalized patients, treatment may still reduce illness and death when started more than 48 hours after onset, CDC, accessed 2026. ↩
  10. On causes, risk and recovery: NHLBI guidance states that bacteria, viruses and fungi cause pneumonia, with Streptococcus pneumoniae the most common bacterial cause in the United States and flu and the common cold the most common viral causes in adults; that adults 65 and older, children 2 and younger, and people with lung disease, heart failure, diabetes, malnutrition, weakened immunity or conditions that affect swallowing are at higher risk, as are people who smoke or use alcohol or drugs; that antibiotics treat bacterial pneumonia and should be taken until they are gone, because stopping too soon can let the infection come back, while antiviral medicine is sometimes prescribed for viral pneumonia; and that some people return to normal routines in 1 to 2 weeks while others take a month or longer, with most feeling tired for about a month, NHLBI, pneumonia causes, treatment and recovery. ↩
  11. On oxygen saturation: in a cohort of 2,923 adults with pneumonia discharged from 7 emergency departments, those sent home with saturations below 90% had higher 30-⁠day mortality (6% against 1%) and more hospital admissions, and the authors concluded that a hospital admission threshold of below 92% would be safer, PubMed 21217179. ↩
  12. On vitamin D and respiratory infection: a meta-analysis of individual data from 25 randomized trials in 10,933 people found that vitamin D lowered the risk of acute respiratory infection overall (odds ratio 0.88), with protection from daily or weekly doses but not from large single bolus doses, and most benefit in people with very low levels. These were prevention trials; they did not test vitamin D as a treatment for pneumonia, PubMed 28202713. A 2025 update of the same analysis, with 40 trials and 61,589 people, found the overall effect was no longer statistically clear (odds ratio 0.94, 0.88 to 1.00), with no benefit in people with very low levels, and neither version found fewer lower respiratory infections such as pneumonia, PubMed 39993397. ↩
  13. On garlic and elderberry: some preliminary research suggests elderberry may relieve symptoms of flu, colds or other upper respiratory infections; garlic supplements may increase the risk of bleeding, which matters for anyone taking blood thinners; raw or unripe elderberries and other parts of the plant contain cyanide-producing substances that cause nausea, vomiting and severe diarrhea, which cooking removes; and anyone taking medicines should talk with a clinician before using herbal products, since some interact, NCCIH, garlic and NCCIH, elderberry. ↩
  14. On urgent signs and prevention: NHS guidance advises calling emergency services or going to an emergency department for anyone struggling to breathe, with pale, blue or blotchy skin, lips or tongue, coughing up blood or suddenly confused, and not driving yourself. It advises finishing antibiotics even after feeling better and contacting a doctor if there is no improvement after 2 to 3 days, and lists pneumococcal, flu, RSV and COVID-⁠19 vaccines, each offered by age and risk group, and stopping smoking as ways to lower the risk. It advises against cough medicine in pneumonia, because coughing helps the body get rid of the infection. For chest infections it suggests a hot lemon and honey drink, 1 to 2 teaspoons of honey, to relieve a sore throat, with no honey for children under 12 months, and warns against letting children breathe steam from a bowl of hot water because of the risk of scalding, NHS, pneumonia and NHS, chest infection. ↩
  15. On when to call 911 and what vaccines prevent: MedlinePlus advises calling 911 for breathing that is getting harder, faster or shallow, chest pain on a deep breath, sleepiness or confusion, coughing up dark mucus or blood, or blue fingertips, and to drink plenty of fluids as long as your provider says it is OK. It states that the flu vaccine helps prevent pneumonia caused by flu, the pneumococcal vaccine lowers the chance of pneumonia from Streptococcus pneumoniae, and the COVID-⁠19 vaccine helps prevent severe COVID-⁠19 pneumonia. Sepsis, which a chest infection can cause, is a life-threatening emergency whose signs include rapid breathing and heart rate and confusion. An empyema, pus around the lung that bacterial pneumonia can cause, is treated with a chest tube to drain the pus and antibiotics, MedlinePlus, pneumonia discharge, community-acquired pneumonia, sepsis and empyema. ↩
  16. On zinc and antibiotics: quinolone and tetracycline antibiotics and zinc reduce each other's absorption, so the antibiotic should be taken at least 2 hours before, or 4 to 6 hours after, a zinc supplement. The same fact sheet notes that zinc lozenges may speed recovery from a cold if started early, and that in children zinc does not seem to speed recovery from pneumonia or reduce deaths from it, NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, zinc. ↩
  17. On vitamin C limits: the adult upper limit is 2,000 mg a day from all sources, and too much vitamin C causes diarrhea, nausea and stomach cramps, NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, vitamin C. ↩
  18. On who is offered pneumococcal vaccine: in the US, CDC recommends it for all adults 50 or older and for adults 19 to 49 with certain risk conditions; in the UK, the NHS recommends it for adults 65 and over and for people at higher risk, such as those with long-term heart, lung, kidney or liver conditions, diabetes or a weakened immune system, CDC, pneumococcal vaccination and NHS, pneumococcal vaccine. ↩
  19. On oxygen targets: the British Thoracic Society guideline advises prescribing oxygen to a target saturation of 94 to 98% for most acutely ill patients, or 88 to 92% (or a patient-specific range) for those at risk of hypercapnic respiratory failure, such as many people with COPD, PubMed 28883921. ↩
  20. On COVID-⁠19 treatment: WHO states that most people recover from mild illness without treatment, and that health professionals choose treatment by the severity of the disease and the risk of it getting worse, taking account of age, symptoms, other conditions and individual factors, WHO, COVID-⁠19 fact sheet. ↩
  21. On US figures: CDC reports 41,627 deaths from pneumonia in the United States in 2024, and 1.2 million emergency department visits in 2022 with pneumonia as the primary diagnosis, CDC FastStats, pneumonia. ↩
  22. On the pace of recovery: NICE guidance tells adults with community-acquired pneumonia that after starting treatment most can expect fever to have resolved by 1 week, chest pain and phlegm to have substantially reduced by 4 weeks, cough and breathlessness by 6 weeks, most symptoms to have resolved by 3 months though tiredness may remain, and to feel back to normal by 6 months. It advises seeking further advice if symptoms worsen rapidly or do not start to improve within 3 days, and considering a follow-up chest X-ray at 6 weeks for people who smoke, are over 50 or have persisting symptoms, NICE guideline NG250. ↩